31 Ponterotto, Dianne 2000 Barcelona, Antonio Metaphor and metonymy at the crossroads: A cognitive perspective Berlin; New York Mouton de Gruyter 283-298 metaphor cognitive discourse study cohesion information management knowledge integration role of conceptual metaphor role of memory Diane Ponterotto claims that metaphor has a central role in the structuring of conversation and proposes to regard conceptual metaphor as a fundamental part of cognitive theories of discourse. The model of discourse analysis used by the author (the "blueprint" model proposed by Tomlin et al.), requires that the interlocutors achieve "knowledge integration" and "information management" if the conversation is to be successful. Ponterotto claims that metaphor is the conceptual device that guarantees the satisfaction of this requirement. Then she briefly discusses the complexity of the factors intervening in the coherence underlying the apparent formlessness of a conversation and emphasizes the role of memory and storage in our ability to hold a conversation. She claims that metaphor also facilitates the storage and retrieval of information. Her two brief case studies - one on the script of a film scene and another on a recorded authentic conversation - show that a major metaphor normally provides the heuristic frame, as she calls it, for the rest of the conversation, which then calls up a complex web of thematically related conceptual metaphors that are used to explore and elaborate the major theme in the conversation. Metaphor networks often constitute the backbone of conversation and give it cohesion.(Antonio Barcelona) 31 Grady, Joseph 1999 Gibbs, Raymond W. Steen, Gerard Metaphor in cognitive linguistics : selected papers from the fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997 Amsterdam John Benjamins 79-100 Metaphor 31 Steen, Gerard 1999 Gibbs, Raymond W. Steen, Gerard Metaphor in cognitive linguistics: selected papers from the fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997 Amsterdam; Philadelphia John Benjamins 57-79 Metaphor one-shot - systematic metaphors (p. 59)Step 1. Metaphor focus identificationsometimes the metaphor is implicit and sometimes explicitStep 2. Metaphorical idea identificationStep 3 Nonliteral comparison identificationStep 4 Nonliteral analogy identificationStep 5 Nonliteral mapping identification6th step may have to be added if systematic metaphors only are considered - to compare across a number of expressions 31 Lakoff, George 1997 Stein, Dan J. Cognitive Science and the Unconscious Washington, DC American Psychiatric Press 89-120 Cognitive Linguistics 31 Lakoff, George 1993 Ortony, Andrew Metaphor and thought, 2nd edition Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Cognitive Linguistics Summary of metaphor:The Nature of Metaphor Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning. Much subject matter, from the most mundane to the most abstruse scientific theories, can only be comprehended via metaphor. Metaphor is fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature. Metaphorical language is a surface manifestation of conceptual metaphor. Though much of our conceptual system is metaphorical, a significant part of it is nonmetaphorical. Metaphorical understanding is grounded in nonmetaphorical understanding. Metaphor allows us to understand a relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. The Structure of Metaphor Metaphors are mappings across conceptual domains. Such mappings are asymmetric and partial. Each mapping is a fixed set of ontological correspondences between entities in a source domain and entities in a target domain. When those fixed correspondences are activated, mappings can project source domain inference patterns onto target domain inference patterns. Metaphorical mappings obey the Invariance Principle: The image-schema structure of the source domain is projected onto the target domain in a way that is consistent with inherent target domain structure. Mappings are not arbitrary, but grounded in the body and in everyday experience and knowledge. A conceptual system contains thousands of conventional metaphorical mappings, which form a highly structured subsystem of the conceptual system. There are two types of mappings: conceptual mappings and image- mappings; both obey the Invariance Principle. Some Aspects of Metaphor The system of conventional conceptual metaphor is mostly unconscious, automatic, and is used with no noticeable effort, just like our linguistic system and the rest of our conceptual system. Our system of conventional metaphor is alive in the same sense that our system of grammatical and phonological rules is alive; namely, it is constantly in use, automatically and below the level of consciousness. Our metaphor system is central to our understanding of experience and to the way we act on that understanding. Conventional mappings are static correspondences, and are not, in themselves, algorithmic in nature. However, this by no means rules out the possibility that such static correspondences might be used in language processing that involves sequential steps. Metaphor is mostly based on correspondences in our experiences, rather than on similarity. The metaphor system plays a major role in both the grammar and lexicon of a language. Metaphorical mappings vary in universality; some seem to be universal, others are widespread, and some seem to be culture- specific. Poetic metaphor is, for the most part, an extension of our everyday, conventional system of metaphorical thought. 31 Lakoff, George 1993 Goldsmith, John The last phonological rule Chicago; London University of Chicago Press 117-146 Cognitive Linguistics Asks questions about the cognitive reality of phonological rules - questions the competence/performance distinction in light of connectionism. "neural processes occur in real time. Phonological derivations do not occur in real time, but in some 'abstract time' that cannot be put in correspondence with real time." (p. 117)"there is something wrong with the foundations of generative phonology, [and] all those orderings and cycles and principles are the products of a mistaken theory." (p. 117)Suggests an alternative to simplify phonology in litght of connectionism and the workings of the brain"On thing that connectionist models do naturally is characterize cross-dimensional correlations. Those of us working in cognitive grammar have found that really complex syntax (of the 'non-core' variety, which is most of syntax) becomes tractable if it formulated in terms of direct correlations--called 31 Gibbs, Raymond W. 1993 Ortony, Andrew Metaphor and thought Cambridge Cambridge University Press 252-276 Metaphor Starts off by mentioning the meaning of 'trope' as 'turn, twist' in Greek - which also provided names for the long and confusing list of tropesBut also adds that other scholars in the past gave figurative language a prominent place: Quintilian, Ramus and VicoContinues that metaphors have been studied more extensively in recent years to the neglect of other tropesWill argue that there doesn't need to be a separate cognitive process for each trope (irony, hyperbole, oxymoron, idiom, etc.) or even for tropes in General as opposed to other language usageThis chapter will be concerned with the role of common ground in understanding tropes: metonymy, irony, hyperbole and understatements, oxymora, idiomsRe process of understanding:"Listeners find tropes easy to understand precisely because much of their thinking is constrained by figurative processes." (p. 253)Implicature claims (Grice, Searle) of violation and interpretation shown to be psychologically falseReports on an experiment (Gerrig, 1989) where people read the sentence 'the horse race is the most popular event' at the end of a story about horse racing and snails racing on a horse took the same time to read (|cf. claims about blending) - thus context and background knowledge established as common ground are paramountIdioms - tacit conceptualization and metaphoric mapping helps make sense - 75% of agreement on underlying images 31 Lakoff, George 1992 P Thirty years of linguistic evolution : studies in honour of Rene Dirven on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday Philadelphia John Benjamins 463-482 Cognitive Linguistics 31 Lakoff, George 1988 Proceedings of the Connectionist Models Summer School San Mateo, CA Morgan Kaufmann 301-314 Cognitive Linguistics